After the Victorian era, building of many more of London’s houses in the terraced style sparked the beginning of the Edwardian Architecture. The Edwardian architecture is an architectural style that arose during the reign of King Edward VII of the United Kingdom from1901 to 1910.

As previously discussed, the Victorian period introduced mass housing, which aimed at expanding the middle-class people, who were at initial stages of gathering wealth. This period enabled many to live in properly constructed homes with appropriate sanitation. However, in the east of the city in areas like Whitechapel and Spitalfields, slums started to develop, as more people relocated to the city in search of work opportunities. Also, the population within the city was rapidly increasing due to the introduction of the new railways sparked the increasing relocation of people into the city causing an increase in the suburbs.

No doubt the Edwardian architecture was a blend of the Victorian architecture, with less ornate than the late Victorian architecture. This construction was mainly terraced, semi-detached and partly detached villas but these were smaller than those in the Victorian era. Externally, you can often identify an Edwardian home by the Dutch gables, sash windows and deep bay windows. Edwardian homes also are often half-clad in timber or sub-divide windows into smaller square panes in order to create an aesthetic appeal.

Edwardian properties till date, are often much shorter than the Victorian homes since they had a less need for servants.

Characteristics of Edwardian homes

• Less application of dark furnishings and exotic artefacts and ornaments were slipping away and in came the trend of plainer decorative designs across the home.
• Transition from oil and gas lamps to the use of light bulbs (electricity)
• Unlike the Victorian architecture, wallpapers were made lighter, floral patterns were la
• Use of steel or reinforced concrete frames clad in bricks or stone to free walls for non-structural uses

Various Edwardian homes in London.

A room’s lighting is what drives one focus to specific sections in an interior space but to achieve this, you need to understand how to best distinguish the light fittings involved in the lighting process. Different bulbs are designed with different wattages and designs but more to these are the categories in which they are grouped, Architectural and decorative lights. To create a successful balance between lighting and architecture, you need to consider the aesthetics, function, and efficiency of the lightings and the space. The combination of these 3 key considerations when observed, a perfect interior is no option.

• Aesthetic : In aesthetics, emphasis is aimed at the emotional impact the balance of lighting and architecture will have on occupants. This is key for mainly retail locations, hotels and restaurants.
• Function : The functionality of the lightings used must be observed, making sure it serves its most important purpose. If it is an accent light, the occupant should be able to see the textures and features on the target item, it task lighting, one should effectively perform the targeted task with ease. This helps to continuously create a feeling of reassurance to the user or occupant of the space.
• Efficiency : This can be done by assuring the majority of the light is reaching its target and there is less wasted light. Reducing the amount of wasted light will make the building more efficient. An easy way this can be done is to install LEDs instead of fluorescent lighting. Because of the technology, there is less wasted light with LEDs than fluorescent due to the directional nature of LEDs.

DECORATIVE LIGHTING

These are designed to be seen, to draw one’s attention into their display due to its unique beauty. It adds a lot of beauty to a space as a major reason for its installation alongside complimenting to ambient and task lightings within the space.

When to best use decorative lights.
Less lighting on ceilings. The decorative lights help supplement on the lighting in a space. Just incase one wants to maintain few lighting points on the ceilings, pendant lightings can be a great additive. Glass pendants usually hang down from the ceiling, adding elegance to the space.
Lamp lights also play a good supplementary role in such scenarios as they emit light in interior corners/ target locations identified like tassels, a fringe, a contrasting braid, or an interesting patterned design.

ARCHITECTURAL LIGHTING

Architecture fully relates to the art or practice of designing and constructing buildings making it a more general concept in building design. Architectural lighting works to serve and enhance the architecture, not merely as an accessory. So, architectural lighting is an intersection of art (architecture) and technology (lighting). The architecture being illuminated or lighted may be commercial or residential. This lighting mainly draws focus to an actual item or space. However, there is no real fitting involved. Its main purpose is to draw attention to the art below it.

COMPARISONS BETWEEN MODERN
HOMES AND TRADITIONAL HOMES

Many believe a traditional/heritage home must be old in age or existence while the modern home is the latest luxurious kind. Traditional and modern homes don’t necessarily mean old or new respectively. These sail as far as the building designs, materials used, origin, architecture, historic components. Most heritage homes are traditional homes by virtue of their dominating similarities. The specifics in comparing these two sets of homes, if known to one, best guides their choices in which home to look out for.

Architecture

Ancient architecture is defined by the elegant and rich designs while modern architecture seeks maximizing every utility while minimizing costs. Most traditional homes are characterized by voluminous designs and rare materials, integrating many single units to form a huge structure. These were built by the local artisans carefully paying attention to every detail as built. In summary, one can say these buildings were over designed and this explains why they have stood the test of time. Maintenance therefore comes costly for most traditional homes.

Modern homes or structures are usually designed to last a specific period of time beyond which they’ll require demolition or upgrading. Modern home constructions are implemented while incorporating building principles, scheduling and management

Lighting and openings

Traditional homes, due to the various internal partitions called for many window and door openings to light up the different rooms. Traditional homes usually have smaller, symmetrical windows of the same sizes and shapes accommodating the different room partitions. Less heating appliances were used which limited the demand for abundant aeration through larger doors and window openings.

Due to the various flexible door and window designs and sizes, modern homes have taken full advantage of this revolutions due to increasing bills associated with lighting a building. Door and windows not only serve as openings and access, but are today a source of abundant natural light into a home at little or no cost.

Space partitions

Most traditional homes though spacious in the internals, were/are divided into smaller rooms because these were designed for households which were in larger numbers than they are today. Larger spaces were mainly designed for general rooms like dinning and sitting rooms.

Today, the more space there is in a structure, the more comfort associated to it. The way of life today is dominated by a demand for people to work within their homes with less destructions thus aiding the need for comfortable space with less occupants. Therefore, modern homes make the most of space, with multi-purpose rooms having less walls to serve the needs of its occupants yet with minimal inconveniences within the building.

Materials

Far from just rich architectural designs, materials used in traditional buildings were abundant but with little or no alternative options. Today, these are now expensive and rare to find for example gold, terra Cota bricks but have been replaced with various options like concrete bricks. Due to their abundance in quantity at the time, these materials were used unsparingly to bring the best out of a structure’s appearance. The old designs were disadvantaged by limited material options and designs unlike modern buildings. A variety of building materials, finishes, furniture have been introduced overtime to match the rapid development of architecture.

One of the major reasons for high maintenance and renovation costs in traditional homes is due to the scarcity of the original materials used as it requires that the originality of a structure be maintained especially with listed heritage buildings. Modern homes, alternatively are built with less material but with achieved maximum elegance and beauty due to economic reasons. Construction is usually done today to maximize the utilities but with minimal expenses.

Want to assess, renovate or buy a heritage home, but you don’t seem to know where to start? Or perhaps you want a modern dream home? For all your building concerns, Contact London Building Contractors
A Complete-Turnkey-Solution-For-You.

While seemingly innocuous, the soil type could have a dramatic impact on your project. Michael Holmes analyses the various ground conditions and foundation solutions, revealing their cost

Soil Types

A good starting point is to call your local authority Building Control department. They should be willing, informally, to give you an idea of the typical soil type in the area you are building, and the sort of foundation that is appropriate.

Usefully, most local authorities produce a fact sheet on typical foundation solutions for different soil types commonly found in the area.

Rocks such as limestone, granite, sandstone, shale and hard solid chalk have a high bearing capacity. The rock may simply need to be stripped back and levelled off to build from.

Rock can be impervious, so topsoil is likely to require drainage as it is not possible to build soak ways to dispose of rainwater or surface water. Off-mains drainage options will also be very limited.

• Chalk – Strip foundations are commonly used in chalk. Providing the chalk is not too soft, widths of 450mm for low-rise buildings are generally acceptable. The depth of the foundation must be below any frost action (700mm). If the chalk is soft it will need to be excavated until firm chalk is reached.
• Gravel and sand – Dry compact gravel, or gravel and sand subsoil’s are usually adequate for strip foundations. Generally a depth of 700mm is acceptable, as long as the ground has adequate bearing capacity. If the water table is high (i.e. the gravel is submerged), the bearing capacity is halved, so it’s important to keep the foundations as high as possible. A shallow, reinforced, wide strip foundation may be suitable. Sand holds together reasonably well when damp, compacted and uniform, but trenches may collapse and so sheet piling is often used to retain the ground in trenches until the concrete is poured.
• Clay – The first 900-1,200mm layer of clay is subject to movement due to expansion and shrinkage depending on moisture content, so it is generally necessary to excavate foundations to a depth where the moisture content of the clay remains stable. British Standard 8004 recommends a minimum depth of 1m for foundations But if there are, or were, trees nearby, depths of up to 3m may be necessary. In clay, prior to concreting the foundations, the trench is often protected from heave by lining it with a compressible layer (e.g. Clayboard).
• Firm clay over soft clay – A traditional strip foundation is sometimes acceptable but it is important not to overdig as this may increase the stress on the softer clay beneath. A common solution is to dig wide strip foundations with steel reinforcement — however an engineered foundation may be necessary.
• Peat – Peat and loose waterlogged sand are very poor subsoils. If the peat can be stripped back to find suitable load-bearing ground of at least 1.5m depth, strip foundations may be suitable. A reinforced raft foundation will likely be required.
• Filled ground – Where ground has previously been excavated and filled, it is generally necessary to dig down to a level beneath the area of the fill.
• Sloping sites – Sloping sites require stepped foundations. Guidelines are given in the Building Regulations.

Foundation Types

A quick guide to the most common types of foundation

• Strip Foundation – A continuous strip of concrete supporting load-bearing walls. For a single storey building strip foundations will typically be 450mm wide and at least 200mm deep, and for two storeys 600mm wide and 200mm deep.
• Deep Strip Foundations – Deep strip foundations: Where strip foundations need to be at a lower level to reach soil with suitable bearing capacity, a wider, deeper trench can be dug to work in, and the strip foundations dug and poured at a lower level. Walls are then built up to ground level in masonry.
• Wide Strip Foundations – Wide strip foundations: Where the soil is soft or of a low load-bearing capacity, wide strip foundations can be used to spread the load over a larger area, reinforced with steel so that the loading per m² is reduced.
• Trenchfill Foundation – Due to the high cost of labour, deep strip foundations have largely been replaced by trench fill. Trenches are dug to a depth where the subsoil provides sufficient load-bearing capacity, and the whole trench is filled with concrete. Steel reinforcement may be added in areas close to trees. Compared to deep strip foundations, trench fill minimises the width of the dig and the labour and materials required for building masonry below ground level, offsetting the cost of the additional concrete.
• Raft Foundation – A reinforced concrete raft or mat is used on very weak or expansive soils such as clays or peat. They allow the building to ‘float’ on or in the soil. A raft is used where the soil requires such a large bearing area that wide strip foundations are spread too far, making it more economical to pour one large reinforced concrete slab. A raft is an alternative to piles as it can be less expensive.
• Piled Foundation – Short bore pile and beam: Where the ground conditions will not support strip foundations and the depth of trench fill foundations become uneconomic, or ground conditions make them unsuitable, a series of columns (piles) can be bored and cast in-situ, or precast piles driven into place until they reach stronger strata. Short bore piles are typically 2–3m long and can be reinforced with steel. Each pile is then connected at the top by a precast horizontal beam of reinforced concrete. A suspended reinforced concrete ground floor can then be built using precast components, or cast in situ.
• Friction Piles – A similar concept to short bore pile and beam used in situations where there is no suitable bearing stratum at an acceptable depth. Friction piles rely on skin resistance against the soil.
• Pad Foundations – Used when isolated loads need to be supported, for instance to support the columns of a steel or post and beam frame house. The load is concentrated on a small area.

Masonry walls are built of a series of individual units – generally brick, stone or flint – with mortar acting as the glue that holds them together. The external face of the finished wall therefore consists of masonry units separated by mortar joints. These joints are known as pointing.

Mortar basically comprises an aggregate (sand) held in a matrix by a binder. In old walls the latter ingredient was usually lime, but might be earth or a combination of the two. Stone walls were often built with earth-lime mortar, for example, but pointed using lime.

What is pointing?

The most obvious purpose of pointing is to fill the gaps between the masonry units. This stops them from becoming loose and prevents water, draughts and foreign material such as dirt and vegetation from penetrating the wall.

Even more crucial is pointing’s role in managing moisture in the wall fabric. Old bricks are soft and permeable, while stone varies greatly from soft sandstones to very hard flint – but is generally relatively soft and permeable.

These materials absorb water readily; becoming wet when it rains and then drying through evaporation. The lime mortar pointing is also soft and permeable, which helps to ensure that this cycle of absorption and evaporation can continue to take place over the whole wall surface.
Over a long period of time, this #repeating cycle causes erosion of the surface of the material. If there is a frost while the wall fabric is still wet, the water in the wall freezes and expands, causing damage to the surface.

To mitigate this, the #pointing mortar is intentionally made softer and more permeable than the masonry units. This ensures moisture is concentrated in the mortar joints as opposed to the wall fabric. Most of the evaporative drying therefore happens in the pointing rather than the #bricks or #stones.

When there is a frost, the majority of the water will be in the mortar joints. This means most of the erosion and freeze/thaw damage is limited to the pointing.

This sacrificial function is fundamental to ensuring the long-term performance of a wall. The valuable and hard to replace brick or stone is protected at the expense of the mortar joints, which gradually erode over time.

Eventually the exposed mortar will have degraded to the point that it is no longer performing effectively and repointing is necessary. In normal conditions this can be expected to be a once in a generation task.

What can go wrong?

The most common problem you’re likely to encounter is that previous repointing has been carried out using inappropriate mortar.

Modern versions use Portland cement as a binder. This creates a hard, impermeable mortar that suits modern bricks that have been fired at very high temperatures. When used with the softer masonry units in old walls, however, it can have very serious consequences.

In period properties, cement mortar blocks the evaporation route through the mortar joint and concentrates water in the bricks or stones, causing these to erode instead of the pointing. When there’s a frost the wet masonry units are then subject to freeze/thaw action.

This causes spalling of the face of bricks, where the protective skin on the surface is blown off. In severe cases whole bricks or soft stones can completely disintegrate.

The hard, inflexible modern cement #pointing is incompatible with the soft, flexible mortar behind it and begins to crack and fail. This allows water into the wall fabric, where it becomes trapped, which can ultimately cause the core of the wall to degrade.

In addition, contrary to what you might expect, cement pointing in an old wall will fail much more quickly than softer lime versions.

When pointing does start to fail, whether through natural erosion of lime mortar or the failure of inappropriate cement mortar, the ability of the wall to manage moisture is compromised and it will tend to become damp.

Ultimately, the wall’s structural integrity will be compromised. Roots and germinating seeds of plants can start to grow in failed joints, causing serious problems as they expand.

When to repoint old walls

A wall with soft mortar pointing needs to be repaired once the mortar has eroded well behind the face of the masonry units. Erosion will occur unevenly over the surface of a wall; the time for repointing has come when the mortar has receded 5mm to 10mm back from the face.

If a wall has been repointed using cement the work will almost certainly need to be redone with lime mortar at some stage. Judging when to do this is not necessarily straightforward.

If the pointing is failing, the wall is becoming damp or masonry units are starting to degrade then repointing is urgently necessary. However some walls repointed in cement, particularly those in sheltered positions, can continue for a considerable time without showing any adverse effects.

Repointing tips

• Rake out old pointing to a depth of 10mm.
• Large joints in stonework will need to be raked deeper – take care not to destabilise the wall.
• Cement mortar can be hard to remove and risks causing damage – wait until the work is necessary.
• Only use hand tools, and proceed with great care. Never, ever use an angle grinder.
• Use appropriate lime mortar, which should be matched to the old pointing if possible.
• Hot mixed mortar is best, especially in damp walls, but be careful of health and safety.
• Press the mix well into the joints, knock back and then tend the mortar as it goes off.
• Finish with an open texture, set back from the face and not covering the masonry units.
• Protect drying mortar from frost, direct sun and wind.

Attempting to remove the cement pointing, especially if it is still sound, will inevitably cause some damage to the masonry units – so it is best to hold off if there are no problems. Because of the incompatibility of materials, the cement will begin to fail at some stage. This is the time to #repoint; when it is much easier to remove.

How to repoint

The good news is this is a relatively straightforward job that can be undertaken by any competent person with a bit of instruction and training.

The first stage is to rake out the old pointing to remove any failing mortar and provide sufficient depth (10mm) to key the new pointing. You’ll also need to get rid of any very loose and friable mortar, which might involve going deeper.

With a stone wall in poor condition that might be very much deeper. If you get to the stage where the stability of masonry units or integrity of the wall deteriorates, then it is time to call in an expert.
Once the joints have been raked out, they must then be dampened with a fine water spray. This step helps to prevent the new pointing from drying too quickly and failing.

The new mortar is then forced into the joints with a pointing iron or small trowel, ensuring that it is well packed and finished slightly proud. For very deep joints this will be a two stage process, allowing the first stage to go off before progressing to the second.

Once the mortar has started to harden (when it can just be marked with a thumbnail) it should be knocked back into the joints. Finally the pointing should be rubbed back to just behind the masonry units, making sure that it does not go over their edges.

The surface finish should be a rough, open texture to maximise the potential for evaporation. Struck pointing or ribbon pointing, seen much too often in the repair of old walls, is not appropriate either visually or functionally.

Some walls were originally pointed using specialist decorative techniques. These include tuck pointing – popular in Georgian brickwork – and galleting (the incorporation of stone chips in thick joints of stone or flint walls). These are specialist techniques that will require an experienced craftsman.
What pointing mortar should I use?

The best bet is to try to match the original pointing mortar as closely as possible. This is most likely to be compatible with the particular brick or stone used to build the wall originally. It will also maintain the appearance of the wall and help to ensure it fits in with the local vernacular tradition.
Lime mortars fall broadly into three categories, each of which has different properties and applications:

Hydraulic mortars

These include material that causes them to set quickly and develop higher strength than other lime mortars.

They vary greatly in strength, with those at the top of the scale becoming even harder than cement. They are rarely appropriate for repointing old masonry but the weakest hydraulic mortars can be used in exposed situations with very hard stone. Great care must be taken if you’re considering them.

Lime putty-based mortars

These are non-hydraulic. Formed by slaking quicklime, the putty is used as the binder and mixed with carefully-selected sharp sand. This is widely available in ready-mix form, and can be stored almost indefinitely before use, provided air is excluded.

It is straightforward to use and sets as a result of exposure to CO2 in the air. It provides a soft, flexible and highly breathable pointing that is compatible with most old masonry.

Hot mixed lime mortar

This is also non-hydraulic, but is made onsite by combining quicklime, sand and water. Quicklime is hazardous and requires careful handling – nobody should attempt hot mixing without proper training. It makes a very workable mortar that is extremely easy to use.

Hot mixed lime mortar pointing has exceptional moisture management properties, actively wicking water from the surrounding fabric. It is by far the best material to use in damp masonry, as it dries walls out quickly and effectively.